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Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan began with air strikes. (photo: Neridanamo)
Operation Enduring Freedom began in October 2001 in response to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on America. At the time, terrorism was not a new phenomenon to American life. America had seen it used for many years by many marginalized political groups. However, for the most part, terrorism seemed something that was associated with the Middle East or Europe.
Even after the first attack on the World Trade Center in 1992, the American people seemed oblivious to the potential dangers of terrorism. Then on September 11, 2001 the American mind set was changed overnight. The number of deaths and the dramatic images of the World Trade Center being hit by planes full of passengers, the twin towers burning out of control, helpless victims jumping to their deaths, and finally the collapse of the towers shocked America into the realities of a new kind of war.
In the early years of the War on Terror, it seemed that Operation Enduring Freedom would bring the perpetrators of the attack to justice swiftly and cleanly. But this would not prove to be the case. The enemy was not another country with a well defined geographic location. Instead, the Al Qaeda enemy was an elusive network of insurgents from many countries around the world. Now, more than a decade later, the war on terror is still being waged on many fronts across the world and Operation Enduring Freedom has expanded around the world.
– Grayspirit’s Abstract and Commentary
Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan (OEF-A)
Osama bin Laden had moved Al Qaeda’s operations to Afghanistan in 1996, five years prior to the September 11 attack. The Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist group had recently come to power and the two organizations forged a close relationship. By 1999, the UN had recognized both Al Qaeda and the Taliban as terrorist entities and imposed sanctions against them.
It was not surprising then that Afghanistan was the opening move in America’s War on Terror. Following a Congressional Joint Resolution authorizing the President to take action against the perpetrators of September 11, America responded. A month after the Al Qaeda attack on New York, an alliance consisting of the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Afghan Northern Alliance began Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. The objectives of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan (OEF-A) were to destroy terrorist training camps and infrastructure, capture the Al Qaeda leadership, and bring about the cessation of terrorist activity in Afghanistan.
These actions followed a finding that Al Qaeda was responsible for the September 11 attacks and the issuance of an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan. The ultimatum called for the dismantling of all terrorist camps, delivery of all Al Qaeda leaders to the US, and providing the US with access to the terrorist training camps for inspection. The ultimatum was delivered on September 20 and rejected by the Taliban government. In response, America’s War on Terror started with a joint US and British forces bombing campaign on October 7, 2001.
The American led alliance was able to quickly seize major urban centers in Afghanistan and remove the Taliban from power. The Taliban and Al Qaeda retreated from Operation Enduring Freedom into isolated mountainous areas in Pakistan and adopted a guerrilla warfare strategy. In 2004, Hamid Karzai was elected president of Afghanistan establishing a new government for the country. And in 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed in Pakistan in a targeted killing operation.
Major Outcomes: Operation Enduring Freedom Afghanistan
The Taliban government was defeated and subsequently replaced by a democratically elected government. The new government has established its own internal military and police, but it remains uncertain whether or not it can function without continued American assistance.
Key Al Qaeda leaders (most recently Osama bin Laden) have been either killed or captured, but the insurgency continues. At times, the insurgency grew large enough that it seemed that the country was falling into a civil war. In response, the President Obama ordered a surge of an additional 30,000 troops into Afghanistan to bring the insurgency under control in 2009. Like the opening days of the war, the surge was a success tactically.
In 2012, the last of the surge troops had been withdrawn, leaving nearly 70,000 US troops in Afghanistan. At the peak of operations, the American cost of the war has been as high as 7 billion dollars a month. By 2014, the goal of American operations will be the transition from a combat to a support mission.
However, the Taliban continues to operate from bases in neighboring Pakistan. In September 2012, 15 militants dressed in US Army uniforms penetrated Camp Bastion. They destroyed or disabled 8 Harrier jets and killed two American soldiers in the operation. As of 2012, both the Taliban and Al Qaeda insurgency remain active in Afghanistan and the War on Terror continues. Tactically, Operation Enduring Freedom has been more than capable in conventional warfare operations – bombings, taking control of ground, and controlling large areas. But despite the superiority in weaponry and forces, it has not been entirely successful against insurgencies.
Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P)
In January 2002, the US began Operation Enduring Freedom in the Philippines (OEF-P). The primary focus of OEF-P has been to assist the armed forces of the Philippines in their fight against terrorism – primarily in the southern Philippines. Terrorist groups operating in the area have historically included the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, Abu Sayyaf, and Jemaah Isamiyah. There have been no large scale American combat actions as in OEF-A.
Major Outcomes: Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines
The primary role of US forces has been training and advising rather than active combat. About 600 US troops are still deployed in the southern Philippines. Terrorist activities have become less problematic, but not completely eliminated. In February 2012, an Philippines air strike killed three key insurgency leaders. Today, the core of the independence movement now seems to be engaged in a peace process with the government to resolve the conflict through the creation of an autonomous state. The War on Terror seems to be stable in this part of the world and headed towards a peaceful resolution.
Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA)
In October 2002, Operation Enduring Freedom in the Horn of Africa was initiated with the dual goals of combating terrorism and piracy in the Horn of Africa and Gulf of Aden region. America’s War on Terror in this region has focused on various insurgent groups with Al Qaeda ties that have been active in Somalia and on piracy that plagued the region off the Somali coast.
Somalia has been engaged in a civil war since 1991 when clan opposition groups overthrew the government. UN and US attempts to stabilize the situation in the mid 1990′s were largely unsuccessful from a political perspective. Through the 2000-2010 decade, there were several unsuccessful attempts to establish a central government with the assistance of neighboring countries such as Ethiopia and Kenya.
One of the problems for national unification has been strong tribalism in the country that makes establishment of a stable central government extremely difficult. Al Shabaab, an Islamic fundamentalist group merged with Al Qaeda in 2012 and is seen as one of the major groups who would benefit from undermining the creation of a stable central government. As Al Qaeda’s influence increases in the region, the use of drones by American forces to target Al Qaeda leadership and groups has been steadily increasing.
Major Outcomes: Operation Enduring Freedom-Horn of Africa
Operations have been successful in eliminating various Al Qaeda members. The US has also provided military support for the Ethiopian and Kenyan invasions of Somalia. However, the long term outlook for Somalia is not promising. Despite multinational efforts over the past few decades, Somalia still does not seem ready for nation building. From a military perspective, the increasing use of high tech weaponry such as drones may be an effective strategy for achieving counter-insurgency goals (e.g. targeting of insurgency leaders). However, what remains to be seen however, is whether or not such a strategy will be conducive to the long term stability of the country.
Again, for tactical operations, Operation Enduring Freedom in the Horn of Africa tends to be successful. However, the outlook for this region is a continuation of the War on Terror into the future. Aside from occasional headlines, it is questionable whether successful tactical operations in this region are capable of achieving long term gains against the insurgency.
Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS)
Operation Enduring Freedom in the Trans Sahara region was initiated in 2007 to help control terrorism in the Sahel region of Northern Africa. Like its counterpart in the Philippines, the primary emphasis has been on training and providing assistance. The number of US forces in the region is about 1,300. OEF-TS supports the Trans Sahara Counter Terrorism Partnership program. African nations involved in this partnership are Algeria, Burkina-Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Tunisia.
Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) is the Islamic militant organization primarily focused on the overthrow Algeria and other North African governments with the goal of establishing Islamic states. Major terrorist activities seem to have been focused on kidnappings of Westerners although there have been bombings in Mauritania, Algeria and Nigeria. Other insurgent groups are also present in the region.
Major Outcomes: Operation Enduring Freedom Trans Sahara
The functional relationship between AQIM and Al Qaeda is fuzzy at best. Although emphasizing training and assistance, there are questions in some quarters as to whether the military solution is the most appropriate for this region. In some respects, the Arab Spring riots in Algeria and Tunisia suggest that there is a growing internal demand for political change. This demand does not follow the terrorist philosophies of Al Qaeda and military solutions may tend to strengthen rather than weaken Al Qaeda.
In a similar vein, it could also be said that the Arab Spring protests may have been more successful in bringing about change in some of these countries than any terrorist inspired revolution or American backed counter-revolution. Although the countries in this region seem to be moving towards stability, recent terrorist attacks in Tunisia and Libya suggest that Operation Enduring Freedom will also continue into the near future, but with favorable chances for peace.
Iraq War
Although not part of Operation Enduring Freedom, America’s War on Terror expanded into Iraq. In March 2003, the United States and United Kingdom sent troops into Iraq and opened up the second war in Iraq within the decade. Justification for the invasion was to end the regime of Saddam Hussein, the elimination of Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction, and removal of terrorists from the country (some believed that Iraq was supporting Al Qaeda). Within a month Baghdad fell and in December 2003, Saddam Hussein was captured.
Although the Iraqi military had been quickly and soundly defeated, the post-invasion period has characterized by growing insurgency and instability as various groups vie for power in the country. Al Qaeda in Iraq has emerged as one of the insurgent groups operating in Iraq. An interim government was established in 2004 with democratic elections occurring in 2005. Nevertheless, Iraq has been plagued by ongoing sectarian and anti-coalition violence.
In response to increased insurgency in Iraq, the US initiated a surge of an additional 20,000 soldiers in Iraq in 2007. In 2008, the Iraqi Parliament approved a pact with the United States that ultimately called for the withdrawal of US forces in 2011. In 2011, US forces were withdrawn on schedule.
Major Outcomes: Iraq War
Saddam Hussein was removed from power. However, there no large arsenal of weapons of mass destruction were found in Iraq. On the surface it appears that America’s War on Terror in Iraq ended in a military victory. However, Al Qaeda has emerged and flourished as an insurgency group. And in the wake of America’s withdrawal is one of many groups trying to assert itself as an influence in the country.
In short, the Iraq war was a convincing military success. However, that military outcome has for the time being worsened the stability of the country and has created a climate where insurgencies flourish.
America’s Covert War in Pakistan
After the September 11 attack on the United States, President Musharraf of Pakistan agreed to allow Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan to operate from three air bases in Pakistan. The president also condemned extremist groups. However, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of northwestern Pakistan became a refuge for the defeated Taliban army and a staging ground for resistance activity in Afghanistan.
With logistical support, the Pakistani military has been able to kill or capture a number of key Al Qaeda and Taliban leaders in the region. The United States has also operated somewhat independently in the country in the war on Terror. To date, it is estimated that nearly 350 drone and air strikes have been carried out in the War on Terror in Pakistan (nearly 300 in the last four years) with as many as 3,300 killed.
The Haqqani network, an Islamic insurgent group once supported by both the CIA and Pakistani intelligence (ISI) during the Soviet-Afghan war has now emerged as a major threat to US operations in Afghanistan. The network has allied itself with the Taliban. Although not a part of any Operation Enduring Freedom operation, the ‘covert’ war in Pakistan has been a natural extension of the war in Afghanistan.
Major Outcomes: Covert War in Pakistan
Pakistan remains an ally, however growing tensions over US drone attacks on Pakistani soil and its collateral damage has weakened the alliance. American perceptions of Pakistani support for the Haqqani also makes the alliance an unstable one. Osama bin Laden and key Taliban leaders have been either captured or killed in Pakistan as a result an American policy of targeted killings using air/drone/missile attacks or special operations activities.
Drone attacks in Pakistan seem to be increasing in frequency and a significant part of the ongoing war in Afghanistan. The number of ‘collateral’ civilian deaths is estimated to be as high as 880. Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan remains active and continues to spill over into Pakistan.
America’s Covert War in Yemen
In October 2000, the USS Cole was attacked in the port of Aden, Yemen. Responsibility for the attack was placed on Al Qaeda. Following, the September 11, 2001 attacks, President Saleh of Yemen met with President Bush and announced a partnership with the US in America’s War on Terror.
In January 2009, militants in Yemen announced a merger with Saudi militants and announced the formation of Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). It is also thought by some that AQAP has begun to develop ties with Al Shabaab in Somalia. Goals of AQAP are to renew attacks on the American homeland, attack American interests in Yemen, and to destabilize the Yemeni and the Saudi governments. In response, it appears that the US has embarked on the use of drones, air strikes and special operation missions to weaken the AQAP leadership through a campaign of targeted killings.
Major Outcomes: Covert War in Yemen
The death of Osama bin Laden has lead to a decline in Al Qaeda’s influence in Afghanistan However, Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula seems to be emerging as the primary center for the terrorist group today. The unstable government of Yemen combined with the highly tribal nature of political power in Yemen, probably gives AQAP a fertile breeding ground. Since 2009, as many as 150 drone or air strikes may have been carried out in Yemen in a ‘covert extension’ of Operation Enduring Freedom.
America’s high technology war seems to be capable of eliminating the leadership of Al Qaeda. However, it seems that as soon as one head is removed, it is replaced by another. The recent fall of Yemen’s government in their Arab Spring may move the country towards a stable democracy. It also represents an opportunity for Al Qaeda to exert its influence on an emerging new government with a continued War on Terror.
Yemen currently seems to be a spillover effect from Operation Enduring Freedom operations in Afghanistan with no discernible progress towards peace in sight.
Summary: The War on Terror
Where Operation Enduring Freedom employed conventional warfare, the conflict has been swift and almost one-sided in favor of the United States. The Taliban government of Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein’s government in Iraq fell quickly to coalition forces lead by the United States military. However, the removal of strong central government opened up opportunities for civil war and insurgency. Sectarian and tribal violence replaced the central government in these countries. Trying to build up new governments in Afghanistan and Iraq amidst constant insurgency has not been easy and not something that Operation Enduring Freedom seems well equipped for.
Some might argue that the destabilization of the region has been made worse by the insurgencies in these two countries. On the other hand, others may argue that the attempts to establish democracies in these two countries has set a precedent for change in the region. Whether there is any causal relationship or not, the recent Arab Spring that swept many regimes from power in the Middle East suggests that there is an internal demand for economic and democratic reform in the region. This internal force seems to be more effective at bringing about change than the use of terror or a high tech Operation Enduring Freedom.
Bibliography
- A Timeline of the Iraq War, ThinkProgress.org
- Obama’s Covert War in Yemen, New America Foundation
- The Covert War on Terror, The Bureau Investigates
- US War in Afghanistan, Council of Foreign Relations
- Yemen Profile, BBC News
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